От твердой воды до жидкого гелия (история холода).

In a popular form, it tells about the history of the development of low-temperature technology, its use, as well as related areas of science. It is shown how, through the efforts of inventors from different countries, numerous machines and devices were created, without which modern civilization could not exist.

For a wide range of readers interested in the history of technology, its modern problems and development prospects.

Preface

Chapter one. Prehistory of the development of cold (from ancient times to the end of the 18th century)

1.1. “Natural” cooling

1.2. First steps of artificial cooling

1.3. Thermometry and heat

1.4. “The lowest degree of cold”

Chapter two. The beginning of experimental physics of low temperatures (first half of the 19th century)

2.1. Liquefaction of “permanent” gases

2.2. Critical and triple points

2.3. New cooling methods

2.4. The first breakthrough in the field of cryotemperatures.

Chapter three. The first steps of refrigeration technology (first half of the 19th century)

3.1. Artificial ice displaces natural ice

3.2. Gas (air) refrigeration machines

3.3. Steam (vapor compression) refrigeration machines

Chapter four. From low-temperature physics to cryogenic technology

4.1. Cryogenic technology is catching up with refrigeration

4.2. Throttling shows possibilities in cryogenics

4.3. The last unyielding gas is liquefied

Chapter Five. Cryogenics not only liquefies gases, but also separates them

5.1. From the art of distillation to low-temperature rectification

5.2. Energy of low-temperature rectification

5.3. The family of “lazy gases” is published

Chapter six. Refrigeration technology is gaining strength and conquering the world

6.1. Refrigeration technology is being improved

6.2. “Cold chain” - from field to home

6.3. What else can refrigeration equipment do useful

6.4. Natural cold and ice in the service of man

Chapter seven. Cryophysics of the twentieth century

7.1. Liquid helium. Superconductivity and magnetic cooling

7.2. The formation and difficult paths of Soviet cryogenics

7.3. Paradoxes of liquid helium

7.4. Superconductivity - disappointments, successes and hopes

Chapter Eight. Cryogenic technology of the twentieth century

8.1. “Oxygen matters”

8.2. From “macro” to “micro” cryogenic technology

8.3. Space and low temperatures

Chapter nine. Results and prospects